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ORAL Et" d3 USH l! IiilS .~
R DE
State Department of Public Instruction
DIVISION OF INDIAN EDUCATION
426 Arizona State Building
Phoenix, Arizona
ORAL ENGLISH AFTER THE fIRST GRADE
' W. W. DICK
Superintendent of Public Instruction
WES. A. TOWNSEi'. D
Director of Indian Education
STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION
Ex'" Officio ;\/\ embers
Hen. Paul J. Fannin, Governor
H( m~ W. W. Dick, Superintendent of Public Instruction
Dr. Richard A. Harvill, President, University of Arizona, Tucson
Dr, L. J. Walkup, President, Arizona State Co'k; go, flagstaff
Dr. Harold D. Richardson, Acting President, Arizona State University, Tempe
Mem~ ers Apeointed b~ the Governor
Hon. Raymond E. Booth, SuperintendentI Winslow Public Schoo's
Hon. Bessie Kidd Best, Superintendent, Coconino County Public SchOOlS
Hon. Bruce K. NIOOr\ J;, Superintendent, Phoenix Union High SchOOl System
Prepared by:
MAMIE SIZEMORE
Classroom Specialist
Indian Education
State Department of Public mstruction
DIVISION Of INDiAN EDUCATION
State House
Phoenix, Arizona
SPEECH IS THE MOST IMPORTANT SOCIAL
TOOL A CHILD OR ADULT POSSESSES. TO
BE ABLE TO COMMUNICATE SUCCESSFUllY
IS ONE Of THE IMPORTANT ASSETS IN UFE.
FOREWORD
All too often teachers, suddenly given the l'ask of teaching English as a
second- kmguage j have no way of finding out how others have approached the problems
involved in this task.. One of the main obiectives of the Division of Indian Education
has been establishing Hnes of communication between teachers of the state so as to
snare experiences derived from teaching Indian chi'efren" They have been pleased to
act as a clearing house for teaching aids and methods i'Elsted and found to be of value.
The problems arising with Indian students learning English, as a second language,
wm probably never be handled wholly by trained speech correctionists in the
state of Arizona.. There are too many children iovoled.. Several thousand Indian
children are now enrolled in our public schools and the cost to provide speech specialists
would be prohibiHve ..
Therefore, this bulletin win consider a speech improvement program,
carried out primarily by the classroom teach~ n · . The conten'i" s of ' i" he bulletin is
suggestive, not prescriptive. The sequence is planneild but not mandatory.. The
teacher may select and adapt the suggestions to meel' theil need's of the individual
or group he or SM is trying to helpe
N\ ore and more teachers, at aU levels of the educaHonal ladder, are realizing
that language growth is a continuous process. It must always be remembered
that English, as a second language, is not taught in a vacuum, but in a social
environment" The Indian child should learn the new mode of communication by
living the language through activity. Effective language learning involves stimulation
from as many sources as possible...... visual, auditory, kinaesthetic.
Motivation is the most important factor involved' in a person's learning a second'
language. A keen desire to learn is fundamental to any fGal measure of success.
What can be more important to the Indian children in our public schools,
than ~" o handla in English, their own work- a- day language with facility. As the
language barrier is demoHshad, i" o the same extei1t will the amalgamation of the
Indian chHdh~ n of the state in~" o the dominant non- Indian society be hastened.
l\'\ AlvHE SIZEMORE
L'_~!' ossroom :,> p~ e. c! c! I. J's! 1.
Division of Indian Education
BASIC ELEJviENTS OF A PROGRAM FOR TEACHING i: NGUSt- 1 AS A SECOND
LANGUAGE TO INDIAN CHII. DREN
FIRST and foremost is the requirement to create the need for speaking English- then
capitalize upon this noed.
SECOND is the need to develop systematically a vocabulary for expressing oneself.
THIRD is the need to formulate and develop automatic control and fluency in the
use of natural and accurate English- language patterns.
FOUR is the need to teach each child to speak freely with respect to others and' to
learn to appreciate the art of listening as wen as speakina.
- - -.. -
FifTH is to provide opportunii'ies for conversing with others in group situations.
SIXTH is to encourage participation in group planning and social situations found
in the dominant culture.
SEVENTH is the stressing of contributions that are worthwhile for the group.
EIGHTH is to develop the ability to express oneself in creative and dramatic play.
NINTH is to encourage orderly, complete, clear development of ideas.
TENTH is to develop the abWty to recognize, interpret and speak so there is
IIsentence sense. II
ELEVENTH is to stimulate the acquisition of vowels and con$ Onants in proper
sequence.
TWELFTH is to stress the accuracy of pronunciation, and importance of proper
sentence structure.
THIRTEENTH is to encourage natural, audible, pleasing, unstrained speaking voices
capable of reflecting mood and meaning.,
FOURTEENTH is to stress the importance of trying to eliminate inappropriate, or
distracting visiblo mannerisms while speaking_
ORAL ENGLISH AFTER THE FIRST GRADE
The need for instructional help in oral English for Indian students does not
end with the first grade. They continue to need positive and constructive help for
severa' years. By the end of the second year in schaal they have become truly bi...
lingual, and then their needs overlap with those of English speaking children in the
classroom. This being true they arG seldom taught separately in instructional groups.
mentary school. Children of this age shOUld be led to become interested in language
as CI social skill, and to desire to develop their own powers in the use of language in
the situations of life.
A language is a method' by which one Hving thing by an effort, deliberate
or not, brings or exchanges a message to another Iiving thing_ For any person Ian'"
guage is lecnned in a very vital situation. If this is true of a chilcPs native lan-guage
it holds true in the learning of a second language, The skills involved are
not being learned alone, they are integrated in a cluster of leamings which include
attitudes, study habits, social skills, and values; Special interests of Indian students
shoUld be mat as they become familiar with the English- speaking culture in aU its
aspects, Integration with the total groups is highly desirable.
Older Indian boys and girls need guidance in their learning of English. The
successful teacher will be sensitive to their needs and plan her program accordingly.
In the classroom, lifelike situations and activities will give opportunity to create
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interest and develop skW in oral and written expression. Thesa general suggestions
from experienced teachers may be found helpful:
1. The elementary school pupil is largely influenced by immediate
needs and immediate problems.. learning is facilitated if the
material is interestin~ to the pupil.
2. If the child feels secure in his classroom environment he will mingle
with English- speaking companions.. Teachers should appreciate the
importance of good human relations.. Contact with the whole group
gives the Indicn child practice in the whole constellation of English
learnings. Too often it is found that the Indian adolescent feels he is
being iSOlated because of his linguistic handicap and win revert back
to spending his time with companions who speak only his native
tongue"
Experience has taught that many teachers have fai led to regard
seriously a number of important psychological problems in teaching
English as a second language. They have been so concerned about
the factors which they could see and measure that they have failed
to take into consideration some of the more subtle and less obvious
conditions, In other words they hclVt;; 1 become so absorbed in the
developmen~' of techniques that they have forgotten the student.
3. TeachiSfs must, from the very first day of school, use extreme care
to make the Indian children feel that they are interested in them and
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reeognize ~' heir difficulties and successes, tven the tone of a
teacheris voice and her attitude will feU the chnd a great deal,
no matter what words she uses. indian children oro very keen judges
of whether or not a person is friendly, patien1', or interested. They
may misunderstand if the teacher talks too loudly or too rapidly, and
they mO'l take these to indicate irritation, whether or not she is in
such a mood. The wholG school situation should be conducive to an.
atmosphere of ease and happiness to insure ready response in English
and an acceptable social adJustment.
4. A special endeavor should be made to help children realize the
importance of speaking English well. Details or a language program
have meaning only as they are seen in relaHon to the larger idea or
principle: if the student sees the plan or general nature of the program,
the details then seem natural and become an integrated part of the whole;
that is the more easHy and readily \" l1e child secs meaningt the easier
the learning.
5. Indian adolescents are very sensitive.. They have fear that almost
amounts to a phobia, that someone wi II make fun of them.. In their
own cultural background shame, or ridicule, is used as a means of
discipline.. Be sure that the Indian child understands your questions.
Do not just take it for granted that he understands what you are asking_
See that his answers are considered respectfullyI and appreciated. Safe'"
guard them against experience that will make Indian children withdraw
from oral discussions. This is important for all agos, but crHical for
boys and girls in the upper grades. It seems reasonable to conclude
that in many instances failure in language learning may be traced
to unconscious fears of mistakes, end hence rejection of the new
languCige.
6.. Children who are learning a second' language, and' are uncertain of
their use of it, will talk more freely in a small group. This type of
activity fits very weH ini" o an activity program where small mixed
groups may work together for reading, comminGle, work, and dis...
cussion,
7, Thore is an opportunity to encourage good speech every time there
is an opportunity for oral expressicm. This statement is not meant to
imply that the teacher should correct poor speech every time it
occurs in a child~ s expression. it is embarrassing to have a
correction made while a student is talking before a class. Make
notes and save corrections, for older children, until you can work
with them alone. This is particularly important at the beginning of
the school year, when the children are strange to the teacher, it is
advisable to refrain from immediate correction of speech errors.. It is
more important to help the child feel that the expression of his thought
is a welcome contribution to the group i- han it is to make him feel that
every sentence must be absolutGlly correct before he dares to express
it.. Grammar can become a roadblock to exprossion; when using the
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new language itself is the real hurdle.
The English language is made up of sounds, vocabularYl and grammar;
Each deserves special attention. Undue emphasis upon grammar may
aHenate from the total language program intelligent children who
initially showed a keen interest in learning English.
Essential Language Skills
Research in recent years tends to prove that a second language is more
naturaHy acquired in its spoken form. Also that students learning a second language
are more highly motivated in that language and to persevere in its use if the reward
of their effort is an early proficiency in using the learned language as an educational
tool" The wise teacher will plan activities that will involve her bilingual chiidriZin in
( A recent study showed that where non- English speaking pupils
were in minority in on English speaking community of high socioeconomic
level, they learned English much more quickly, since
English was the language spoken at the stores, in the movies, and
at all other community activities. In contrastI in this same study,
it was revealed that in the upper grades it becomes increasingly
difficult to motivate poorly acculturated pupils to an academic
type of study. rhe immediate needs of their lives do not seem to
require it and it is difficult for them to envision a long range need
which might or could occur later in life and in Q different socioeconomic
setting.)
When a child is interested in what he is talking about he will often forget
Clnd overcome his lock of language skills by his enthusiasm. listen for the idea the
child is trying to express, rather than the mechanics of language. With practice the
languoge skills win improve. In this way they become helpers to good communication
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in a secondary role, and are not the principal goal in themselves.
00 not be overly concerned about your Indian student's imperfect Eng' ish
SPeeCh, This does not mean that this aspect of language learning should be ignored.
It has been found that the longer an Indian child, learning English, uses incorrect
forms of speech, the more difficult it is for him to overcome his defects, and the
more he is slowed down in his learning to speak the language with the right intonation,
and' without accent. Give your older Inman students specific help, but
bear in mind that if teachers are successful in getting children to talk a great deal
in English, they will correct many of their own faults by conscious and unconscious
imitation of the English pattern. As teachers study individual children and come to
know their background and emotional developmentI they shQu. d strive to create an
environment that win provide an opportunity for speech improvement.
V\' hen children express their thoughts the teacher will need to listen criticoUy. J
Poor voice quality, lazy enunciation, inaccurate pronunciation, and limited vocabularies
will need to be noted. Thought must be given to ways and means of improv-ing
speech. isolated and mechanized drills do not CIS a genera' rule achieve the
desired ends in speech improvement for a group. Happier solutions for improvements
lie in using games, selecting speech lingles, motivation practice, subtly correcting
individual errors, and commending improvement, Do not overdo praise with Indian
children, many times this makes them feel conspicuous I which is contrary to their
hometroining.
Oral expressions should always be given the special emphasis that its
prominence and use in everyday life merits, The following essential language
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skills should be developed step by step in well- planned sequence, consistent with
the mental and social growth of the child.
The following outline of skills and knowledges covers many of the difficulties
which the Indian children have in the use of oral English. It is the result of extensive
research by teachers who have worked for years with the Indian children of Arizona.
Use of I with name words:
John and Ii lv'iary and I; My brother and I ( not me)
John and I ( not I and John)
Pointing words: - these and - those ( not them)
Words that say uNou ( not, none, nothing, no one, nobody, nowhere)
Use of this and that ( not this here and that there)
Avoiding unnecessary words ( as my brother he )
iv1aking words mean more ( not more taHer, etc,)
Niaking words mean most ( not most loveliest, etc.)
Use of I, he, she, we, and they with one another, or with
names, as ( He and I; John and she; Mary and he; We and our
friends, etc.)
Use of me, him, her, us, and them with one another or with names, as:
( She asked him and me. They asked John and her. )
Use of me, him, her, us, and them after with, between, to, for
~------ - ....... --
Use of different forms of sit, 5i: lt .. rise, raise,.! 12 and .!!: y
Use of ought ( not had ought)
Use of shall I ( not will I) in asking questions
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Use of he said ( not he says)
Avoid' unnecessary word's as: where to; off of; where is it at; from off
Use of1,. l!:, she, '!!. 2.! or they after as, ( I am older than she.)
Use of hard'ly and scarcely ( l1ot havenJt hardlyI etc.)
Correct use of:
come and came
saw and seen
did' and' done
w- ent and - gone
fan and run
teach and learn
sit and' sot
Jet and leave
12 and ~ ( especially you are)
was Clnd' were ( especially lOU were ana they we~ e)
we children and' us children
v
himself and' themselves ( not . h! sself and theirselves )
~, !!! and caten
- give,- gave and given
- good and - we- H
. b..!.!•!! § l any_ 1/ o, rougn• r•
took CInd ta, ken
- two,- too and'- to
wrote CInd written
grew Clnd grown
' b'e' 9' On and begun
knew and known
rode CInd ridden
threw and thrown
8
spoke and ; pokcn
broke and broken
froze and frozen
- chose and chosen
stole and stolen
drank and drunk
rang and rung
He . and lay
aandan .. TIke
andas rrse CInd raise
Understanding English
Anyone learning a second language usually understands more than he,
can speak or write. } I'!- dian chi ! dre~_ a~ er th-~ firsS' two orJ: hr~_~ years of school ing
canr:~~~~~"! h( 1ntheYucarl __<; lxpr~ s~ o~ al! y. l~_~( 1~ beeJ1 found by research that the
There is a distinction between an active ( functional or productive) and a
passive ( recognitional or receptive) vocabulary. That vocabulary is active which
is learned so intensively as to form, meaning, and use that it can be used by the
student in any list@ ning / speaking, reading or ~ l" ritin9 activity. Vocabulary is eon--
sidered passive when students understand its meaning in either oral or written con-text
without, however, being able to reproduce it themselves~ A person's receptive
vocabulary will always be larger then his active vocabulary.
In actual practice, with very few exceptions, the bilingual students who
have developed a reasonable facility in the use of oral English are successful
achievers in reading activities. So fundamental is the part played by language that
the entire instructional program should be organized so as to promote its effective use,
The teacher of em Indian chifd is faced with two major problems in guiding the ian-guage
development of her student: Teaching the child how to use the English language
and teaching the child when to use certain parts of the language.
Indian children many times master the mechanics of reading but compre'"
hension of what they read is very uncertain. When reading is started in bOQks, two
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~ d made part of the student · s active language; pronunciation and intonation is
\ r
I istressed, and each concept is clarified. In extensive reading, the principal aim is
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jcomprehenSion. Students are trained to get meaning primarily from the context
( although some common vocabu lory items may be developed for active use. AtJfutC
T \ \
begjrtl1ing. f!! 1 reading lessons should be of the intensive type~ Lcd: erJlothJQn~ y \
- \
1:?~ L9JY~_ rlwi_~ I:!._ the material from th~_!~_ te~ tserYJJ} 91Q. LeU~ tL Children learn i
to " say wordsll but lack experience, many times, to do more than follow the general
thread of what they read~ Children who have little contact with the use of English
outside school should have special help with oral English to build understanding.
Following are a number of techniques for teaching English:
1. An Indian student, learning English as a second language, should be
/
! I
Ii
considered a beginner until he learns to speak and understand enough
English to make a satisfactory adJustment to his grade level. Techniques; j
/
used with him should be those of teaching Engl ish as a foreign lan9Uage.~
Normally the techniques used in teaching in upper grades should be native
language techniques. The student must master the spoken language, this
means the literature of the language.
l.
2. "~ anguage must be related to facts. To teU an indian child who has never"
\
seen a " monkeyU that it is a iungle animal does not give a basis for under'" )
standing the word IImonkeY" ll Use as many experiences with real things '
as possible to supplement verbal meaningslI A live monkey may not be \\
available to show the children, a picture or ", me other means of represen-\
tation, plus description, should be used to develop the chHdron1s concept (
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of the word. The danger of being too obvious is nothing compared with
the immediate confusion, and future misconceptions which come from
premature assumptions of students · linguistic knowledge. Training in
sheer verbalization defeats the purpose of fang, Jage instruction.
3. There are many school experiences which are not dependent on fan9uag~ i
to express their mc.,'< mings. FHms, picturos, and other visual aids should
be used to supplement bool< s. By using objects, picfufc; s, and demonstra-tions
of various kinds the teacher can help the student build a knOWledge
of English in a process similar to that which a child learns his mother ton9ue~
4", In aU subiects use a great deal of discussion and explaining. Many
teachers worst and most common fault is talkins too much. They try to
make teachin~ a substitute for learning and in doing so prevent the child
from learning. It is essential to make the child feel Q need for oral
communication. The need to express himself or to make himself undef""
stood is not apparent to the child if the teacher expresses ideas for him or
continually repeats what he has said. Spontaneous free expressions of
interest should be encouraged to develop rapport between teacher and
pupils, also between Indian and non... lndian students. This will:
a. develop foci my of expression
b. call attention to new words and terms
c. extend class interests.
S. Work with small groups of children. Teachers of older Indian children
have found that bringing children around a large table for group dis...
cussion encourages them to speak up~ In such small groups you can
watch and check the comprehension of the individual child.
6. InClude the bilingual children in all activities whether they participate
acHvely or not, because as long as they are interested their learning
may be incidental.
Development of language Facility
Anthropologists report that language is the essence of culture, There are no
people anywhere known to be without a language and'the language always includes
expressions to describe those things that are considered important to rha people speak....
ing that languaga. In other words we could say language is the vehicle of culture.
Of au the tens of thousands of behavior patterns and belief systems we learn
from our culture, language is for and away the most important. In learning a new
language lithe enemy of the languCige to be learned is the language already in
possession .. II The basic assumption on which the program for teaching Engl ish as
a second language rests, like a first I native, language is most naturally acquired
in its spoken form Clnd that a solid and lasting ability to read a language best results
from previous acquisition of that speech which its written form symbolizes. Thus the
ear and tongue are to be trained first, and the eye only later. To facilitate the use
of the new language:
1. Involve the use of needs, to give purpose to a given activity.
Cl. The expansion of vocabUlary, until it is adequate for communication
about worthwhile things, shOUld go parallel with the student- s
experience.
b. Development of reasonable control over sentence structure.
c. The development of ability to preceive relationships between
language and facts.
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d. The improvement of speech production.
learning grarmnar from rules is like learning the interpretation
of a melody second- hand from the explanations
of someone who has heard it sung. learning it from direct
speech is like learning the interpretation of a melody
directly from hearing it sung_ it is the only way to get it
fully Cll" ld exactly. After all, the human ear is responsible
for what human speech is; and what the ear has done, the
ear can understand better than the mind. The ear may find'
simple, what the mind calis comeHeated_ . ,
2. Include many work periods of a laboratory type in which children can
talk freely together as they work. In these social dtuations the bilingual chUd will
develop need for varied types of language expression:
a. Using the telephone
b. Introducing people
c. TeUing stories and listen ing
d. Dramatizing stories
~. Makine oral and written reports
f. Making announcements
g. Giving directions
h. Actual experiences needing a command of English:
Writing friendly letters
Writing Clnd answering invitaNons
Writing lei" ters of thanks
Taking not~ s
Writing a busin~ ss letter.
i « Writing group stories together makes an excellent opportunity
for special attention to words.
j. Make NEW WORD charts for all activities of th~ room .. go
over them often wfih the bilingual children.
k. Encourage chiBdren to show things they have made and done,
this tends to focus their ai'tcmtion away from themselves and
on the object or experience.
I. Play various kinds of word games for vocabulary development.
Games using preposHions; verbs.. and nouns are good for this
age group.
m. Find new words to be used in place of familiar words. Select
poetic words and colorful expressions giving awareness to words
that express mood, color, and character.
n. Focus special interest and attention on words in everything the
closs does; discussing new words; synonyms; homonyms, slight
and subtle differences in meanings, and the varied meaning
carried by a single word.
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ldiosyncra~ ics of the English language
The idiosyncrasies of the English language are pointed out in the fonowing
poem from NEA Journal, September, 1956:
When the English \" ongue we speak,
Why is Ilbreakll not rimed with lIfreaU:"?
II Beardll sounds not the some as " heordlllJ
IICordli is different from IIwordll
; .........
Think of Ilhose ll and lIdoes" and II lose II;
And think of ilgoosell and yet of IIcooose".
Think of " comb" and IItombII and " bomb"- I
II 0011 11 and IiroHII and " home II Clnd Ilsome",
And since IIpayli is rimed with IIsayII I
Vv'hy not " paidll with IIsaid" I pray? ...........
Wherefore " cloncH but " 90nell and lI'one"?
Is there any reason known '(
And, in shortI it seems to me
Sound and letters disagn;} e.
This is another example of idiosyncrasies:
A farmer who started to piough
1- 10& nothing to work but his cough;
Before he got through,
Had his wife workinS I tough,
Which s~' artecl a family rou9h.
( Source unknown)
children with oral vocabulary_ The following comes from J~ Donald Adams on i" he
vagari- es 0).'. our Ianguage:
" Toke lfix', for example, a word whose
many faced character caused N\ ark Twain
to wonder how anybody not born to its use
could master English. You can fix the
ref- rigerator; you can keep your eyes or
your attention on something; you can fix
the price of something else; you can prepare
a meal or a drink; you con influence the result
of a game, etc. 1I
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A number of parHcufar English constructions offer persistent difficulties to
Indian children. The difficulties vary from tribe to tribe. All languages spoken by
members of the Arizona tribes differ radically from English, furthermore, they vary
significantly from each other. Teachers must analyze the difficulties that her special
group of children have with their oral speech and construction of sentences. Teachers
should listen for sounds that are difficult for their children to hear and produce in
correct form. lists should be made that fit individual groups.. As stated above, the
basic ~ · hing to remember is that Arizona Indian children from different tribes have
language habits that vary significantly from tribe to tribe. This m:~ ns that their
? peech difficulties will not fall into a definite Indian pattern.
The language period, when aU children are working on correct usage and
expression, is the best time regularly available to w::> rk with the Indian children in
the classroom. ivlost of the special needs of bi lingual children can be met in this
class period by emphasizin9 practice on those forms which you know are most
difficult for the Indian children in your group. Observe your students. speech not
only in the classroom but also on the playground to see what their difficulties are,
then pian to give them spedal attention to help them overcome their errors.
The Navalo tribe, with their cousins the Apaches, are the largest Indian
linguistic group in Arizona. For this reason they will be used as an example in this
discussion of learning English as a second language. The principlos that apply to
this group can be used in teaching children of other tribes.
As a Navaio child learns to speak English he must reshape his pattern of
thinkins. Since his native language is so entirely different from the new one it does
15
not permit an easy readjustment of thought and expression habits.. !- Ie must acquire
a different mold in which to cast his thoughts. He cannot build the unknow. n upon
the known.. In fact, he often has to try to learn the unknow, n in terms of the unknown.
It would' tc:! f< e volumes to set down au the differences between Navajo and
English; os the two cultures differ, so do the languages. Teachars are not expected' to
learn to speak the language of her Indian students, but they should have a basic f< now'"
ledge of the Novaio language. Everyone who has learned a foreign language knows
that Q very limited knOWledge of the language of a people gives on insight into their
character and mentality quite out of proportion to the effori' involved in acquiring the
knowledge. To acquire even a rudimentary knowledge of Navaio or any Indian lan-guags
requires a great deal of time and effort" But the more the teachers know of the
native language structure the better equipped they wi II be to help their students learn
English. This knOWledge will also help to diagnose and correct speech defects charac...
teristic of Indian children learning English,
Teachers, while they have been conscious of ~' he difficulty which the
Indian child encounters in pronouncing English sound's, do not always sot good exam'"
pi; es. rand they are unconscious of the fact that their own pronunciations often are
faUlty. English speaking people with whom they converse understand the intentions
of their incomplete speech............ puLlndian children, with riO other modeW'o- ge-- b- y.....-_
AU teachers of bilingual children should hove a knowledge of the phonetics
of their own language. The definition of phonetics in a broad sense is the study of
rzr t .....
16
speech sounds, phonetics should not be confused with the use of phonics in the teach-ing
of reading, ehonetics CIS a stud>: includes the way in which speech sounds afe produced
by the speech mechanism of the human body.
There are somethings about the Navajo language that teachers should know.
Only by knowing what to look for will Clny but the most sensitive teacher detect the
points where the pupils are failing to conform in the new language. 8y knowing thel
reason, failures can be readily and initially corrected. The longer a child speaks
incorrectly the harder it is for him to correct his errors~
Things to Remember When You Are Teaching Navalo Children to
Speak English' .
1. Sounds:
There ore some sounds in the English language which do not appear in
the Navajo language" This is true of other indian languoges" These are very difficult
for Novaio children to saY......... difficu It, but not impossible. There is nothing peculiar
about Navajo Hps, tongues, teeth or throats which make i- hese sounds difficult, it is
simply that they are unaccustomed to making these sounds; J\ liony teachers are core'"
less in listening, and let matters slide if the sounds the children make are approxi...
mot ions. Care should be taken that the sounds are uttered as distinctly as possible.
0. The sound!!!, whether as in whe.! her or in ! hink, will be strange
to Navajo children. ( The 11th" sound is almost exclusively
English. It does not appear in any other language except
Greek and Danish). EvenchHdren who have been four or five
17
years in school will be heard to say, " Dis is my mudda", or,
IlDis is my fhaddall
• If the correct position of the tongue and
teeth is made clear to the children when the sound is introduced,
they will find they can make the sound.
b. This is true also of. i, or . e!!, !! and E. The tendency is the sub-stitution
of _ wh. f. or.. f, so that - F-- o- r- t Defiance becomes " Whut ~
Dewhance". The sound of.! may be dropped entirei y in the
Navajo language. The Spanish coin - reyed becomes simply
cents. Or many times the sound of.! is replaced by the sound
of- I, ar- oz becomes- alos, Americano becomes DUagaano. A
little Sil'l by the name of Rose might pronounce her name so
tha~' it sounds like - lois. The sound of- p is usually sounded by a
Navajo child as!?-, although the Navaj0.2 is more explosive than
the English 1:;:_ Of course the essenHal difference between E. and!?-
is the voicing_ IIPurple li is usually pronounced ububblell
, by a
e. Vowels in Navajo are - a-, - e,-', 0-, and rarely - u, all with the
continental qualities as found in:
father
end
mm
These may be lengthened to the sounds in:
for
motor
18
Consequently Navajo lacks the sounds in such common English
Navajo language has numerous diphthongs so that the pronoun
- I presents no difficulty in English; beinc" l a comb'inatio- n of a
and1. It The language lacks the common diphthong represented
in English by the long S?, which really is. 2 plus:!! or ~~
IT IS ONLY BY liSTENING CAREFULLY TO A
SING lE PUPil THAT A TEACHER WILL DETECT THESE
SUBT lE DEFECTS-...... THEY ARE lOST IN GROUP
READING IF THE CLASS IS PREDOMH-.. JANTlY NON-INDIAN.
2. Pronouns:
The Navajo language makes no distinction of gender in personal pro'"
nouns or possessives. ~, she, J. 1!. s_ and her remained mysteries for years to students,
and many have been graduated from schools and still say, liMy sister ~ is lose ~
horseII. Much practice with changing gender of ~' he antecedent is the only cure for
3. Articles:
There is neither definite nor indefinite articles in the Navajo lan9uage~
Only usage can teach a Navajo when to use - a, or - an, or - the. If the teacher is not
careful the child will think the article is part of the word and even at times win add
another articie-..... as in, III saw an asnake lt
, ( It is significant that in aU European
languages the indefinite article is the number- one, and neither classical Greek nor
latin has an indefinite article.)
19
4. Glottal Stop:
The glottal stop is peculiar to many if not aU American Indian Ian'"
guages. It is the last trait to drop out of the speech of Navajos learning English.
English speaking people while they do not take it into consideration, do use it uncon-sciously---
for example if a person wants to say uyour earll and make it perfectly plain
that they are not saying " your rearu will unconscious. y insert this glottal stop between
the words. This stop is an integral part of Navaio and its presence or absence may
completely change the meaning of a word~ Our careless treatment in English of the
letter. 1 is an invitation to take over the glottal stop......... all are familiar with the Scot
who asked for It 0 Ii-' bo'l of ~ a. rll. Especially the final! in English is prone to be
swallowed ana at best given the glottal stop.
THE TEACHER WHO REALLY CARES ABOUT TURNING OLT
PUPILS ABLE TO SPEAK GOOD ENGLISH CAN, IF PATIENT,
PERSISTENT AND GUIDEI) BY THE ABOVE OBSERVATIONS,
• 1 t
DO JUST THAT..
"*
Classroom Activities to Promote . Use of Oral English
Following are a few classroom activities that have proved successful in class-rooms
where Indian students are enrolled:
1. Class members take turns greeting guests, introducing visitors, and
sarving as hosts and hostesses for class parties or programs.
2. Ask your local telephone company~ s Business Office to send a packet
of materials that contains games and' teaching aids. Your school may
arrange to borrow a Teletrainer from the Division of Indian Education,
20
or from your local phone office.
3. " Pretend" conversations to Indians or characters in a" play, so
each child can explain his home, pets, or family. You will be
surprised' that Arizona Indian children do not consider themselves
as Indians. Their conception of an Indian is the classical stereotype
of feathers and warpaint.
4. Pupils i'ake turns in teaching a game, preparing an exhibit or
buUetin boards; the class talks on related ideas or experiences;
5. Show a film inVOlving a street fight, keeping a playmate out of
a game, or some similar sodal problem......... ecnourage the group to
decide on the best or right solution to the problem.
6. Puppets and fUms encourage dramatization, so does a well- told
or a weU- read story f Begin dramatizing daily events and familiar
rouNnCls and work into the less familiar imaginative playlets;
7. Invite an interesting local paintClr, trainman, rancher l Of museum
curator to be interviewed by the class;
8. The class selects a poem to read together in ahofus~
9. Pupils may tel! a part of a story from a new book they are reading
and then read aloud the ending of the story to the class~
10. Each pupil reads a " question" he has phrased for a quiz show,;
The first student answering correct; y then reads his question.
n.. Each pupil is asked to bring in a clearly- stated IIru le for home
safetyII II a good manner rule" IIru le for fair phJyll, etc.
21
( The teacher may Hst these on the board or do a class tapo
recordin9~)
12, The tape recorder may be used to record committee meetings
of the class, and then later the class can Hsten to the ideas
and' language,
13. Who am I? Play a game like the television program " W, harl s my
line"? Use characters in stories, television personalitios, or
historical chorocters........ eoch pupil tokes a turn at asking a
question of the child who is Jlit".
14. Pretend that no one in class knows anyone else.......... each child
asks a question of his partner such as: II How do you spend your
summers? 1I ... IIDo you live near the school? 1I ... IIWhere does your
father work? II
15" § £. in ' 0 Stor~.: Tha closs decides on 3 objects. Each child makes
up a story giving information about these : 3 objects, One child
starts his story; the t<.' CScher stops him; another child carries on.
16. USG of tope recordGr or inter"" com system for closs...-- reading
poems, s~' ories, or dialogues to students in another closs.
17. Pupils invite the elementary supervisor, librarian, principal or
discussed and divided among closs members; a party or program
for parents may be developed; a return visit to the school nurse,
librarian, or principal may be arranged.
22
18~ Each chHd teils of personal experiences; in watching a motion
picture or te~ evisjon program, in observing a mystery, accident,
or unusual local happening.
19~ When a new pupil enters school, a class member takes the new
pupil to the principal, special teachers, bus driver, nurse,
librarian, supervisors, cafeteria, stoff and custodian and intro"
duces the new pupil.
20~ Use a current news item as a basis for class discussion....- each
student may bring in a news item on the Atomic Profect the
Big Storm, or overcrowded schools and read it to the group. The
class decides on the best ideas and the best sources.
21. Pion a field trip and choose class members to interview the
manager and clerks in a store, a museum, or the weather bureau
staff.
22. Each child makes an lIannouncement" to the class: on library
hours, a scout meeting, dancing or music lessons, money
collections for community projects, directions during an air
raid, or garbage disposal facilities.
23. Choral reoding of widely varied rhythms and volumes; humor and'
mystery are much appreciated.
24. A radio show is planned with announcers, panel members and
studio audience. Plan Iltake- offsll on Washington's winter at
etc~
23
25. Science demonstration; pupils talk as they demonstrate.
25. Each student brings in a description or dialogue of a person most
unlike himself, and reads it to the class", Or, one most like himself.
Class may guess who the person is.
27. invite three or four resource persons to class, as a unit is under
study; have the class frame the main topics of inquiry before the
resource persons appear; the class selects discussion leaders and
hosts for the session.
28. Organize a " TaU- Talesll Club for a weekly session; use myths,
mysteries, science fiction, legends, and folk stories ror variety.
29,. Students, through Student Government, present aU annotmce""
ments for aU fund drives, student elections, and student activities
......... announcement's are given over the public address systGm,
and in home rooms~
30. Ask students to describe the smGllIs; of a CafetGlria, locker Room,
Ditto Room, Shop, etc,. Speeches on taste~ 1 colors, sounds and
textures could' be included.
31. Plan a series of interview questions for a " Mock ' nterviGlw"; the
topic might be IIQuestions I would like to Ask lincoin ll or other
weH known historical characters. Plan a similar series of questions
to ask class mates about these men; compare language"
32. Students view television announcers or masters of ceren10nies and
list the hackneyed, meaningless expressions used in introducing
24
performers or acts. Pupils are asked' to list situations in which
they mCl'j need' to make introductions: in church, school, or
community life. Slips of paper are drawn and impromptu
introductions are presented' by closs members.
Bibliography
Adams, D. A., ' IMaterials and Techniques in Teaching English as a Second language, II
Modern language Journal, 41 : 376 ... 83, Dec. 1957.
Describes ten years of experimentation with ; ntensive
English courses at the Institute of latin American Studies.
This study was made at the Mississippi Southern College.
Beyn, R., " English as a Foreign language in Egypt, II Modern langua § ! e Journal"
40: 69- 70, February, 1956. This answers the following
questions: How is the new language like ours? How is the
new language different? How can these known simularities
and differences help make the cross"' over to the new language?
Borg, W. R.., and Goodman, J. S., " Development of an Individual Test of
English for Foreign Students, II Modern language Journal,
40: 240 - 4, May, 1956. D0scription of the test giv0n to
students at lockland Air force Base.
BOfglum, George, Illest Science Explodes in Our Face, II Modern language
Journal, Volume 36, N: 7, November, 1952_ learning
to speak by audio- visual techniques.
Bostain, J .. Wallace., " Rounding Up Superstition for the Sake of Composition ",
Modern language Journal, 342, November, 1955. Although
many of us are inclined to scoff at superstitions, we somehow
find ourselves knocking on wood or avoid walking under ladders~
This is an interesting study pertaining to superstitions.
Camp, N. Harry, lIHow language Affects Behaviorll , Education, 471 ... 490,
April, 1950. This is a guidance number dealing with:
1. The Ordering and Forbidding Method
2. The Clinical- Scientific Method
3. The Dialetic- Socratic or Discussion Method
4;, The Psychiatric or Psychosomatic Method
5;, The Non- directive, Self- analysis Treatment
interview Method..
25
Cannon, G. H., lllinguistic Science and the Teaching of English as a Foreign
language/ II Col. Eng., 19- 73... 5 N. 1957.
Furness, Edna l", IIA Plea for a Broader Testing Program, II l\ ilodern language
Journal, 39: 255 ... 257, May, 1955. This deals with sTandardized '
prognosis, placement and achievement tests for grammar, vocabulary
and visual comprehension, but as yet there is no accepted or satisfactory
test for measurement of ear ski 115"
Getsinger, J .. Wilson, Dr., IITeaehing English as a Foreign languogell
,
£; aHfornia Journal of Secondory Education, 30. 461 ... 464, December,
1955.
Hocking, E., and del Barrio, IIA New Dimension to Teaching language, II
N. EeA. Journal, 44, February, 1955. Mrs. del Barrio teaches Spanish
in Cody High Schoo., Detroit. Dr. Hocking is head of the Department
of Niodern languages, Purdue University, lafayette, Indiana.
Kaar, Geleta Me, IIIaking in the In- Migrant", School Executive, 75, ( Oct., 5S),
50 ... 51. Newcomers from Europe, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and from other
countries CIS weH, are welcomed to become part of the community.
Paratose, A. I " English Program for Foreign Students at Indiana UniversityIII~ odem
language Journal, 40: 105 - 6, February, 1956.. The field of English CIS a
foreign language, or English to foreigners is comparatively new, so new in
fact that there is a scarcity of trained peisOfmel and teaching materialS in
this field..
Schwab, W., IIlanguage and Related Problems of Foreign Students, II Assn .. Am"
Col. Bul., 42: 310 ... 15, May, 1956.. Calls attention to students ·
difficulties with terminology in different subjects.;
Puerto Rican Study, Board of Education, City of New York; N.. Y.., Resource
Units for Classes With Puerto Rican Pupils, ( 5 bulletins with titles as
follows ): ..
1. Secondary School Orientation Stage
2. Secondary School Transition Stage
3. Secondary School Extended - Orientation Stage
4. Teaching English to Puerto Rican Pupils in the Secondary
School
5. An Experiment in Guidance of Puerto Rican S)" udy
26
